The bibliographic base seeks to explore concepts that inform the psycho-emotional and physiological functioning of the adolescent brain, highlighting how the Superego develops in the context of gray matter loss. The goal was to select authors who provide both precise insights and broader perspectives for professionals in psychoanalysis and education who may not be familiar with the topic.

Adolescence is a period of constant transformation and loss, characterized by physiological changes, an ever-changing body, and psycho-emotional shifts. It involves navigating multiple losses, such as the end of childhood, changes in school environments, and shifting relationships. Amid these transformations, there is the challenging task of learning new rules, responsibilities, and demands. I often say that adolescence is when the Superego is most active. Perhaps “due to their mutant nature” (Dolto, 1990, p. 18), adolescents are frequently misunderstood or labeled as “troublesome.” As Lima (2010, p. 281) notes:

In psychoanalytic practice, we observe that adolescents’ complaints reflect this mutability, with new issues arising in each session even if previous ones remain relevant. One day, they may talk about playing with dolls or toy cars; the next, they discuss relationships. Keeping up with these constant changes can be challenging.

Treating adolescents requires navigating their “mutant” discourse, understanding that new concerns will emerge with each session, and recognizing that language (their communication style) is continually shifting. Thus, it is essential to understand the neuropsychological mechanisms of adolescence. This article aims to explore the way the adolescent Superego (and therefore the Ego) works, which is the entity that helps us understand boundaries, rules, and what is permissible. By studying the adolescent Superego, we can propose some clinical management strategies.

During the research for my book “O Adolescente na Virtualidade da Psicanálise” (The Adolescent in the Virtuality of Psychoanalysis), I found that clinical management must be highly adaptable. Today, they may enjoy a certain game, but tomorrow they will not. Today, they talk about a TV series they are watching, but by the next session, they have moved on to another one. This is part of the process of leaving childhood behind and moving toward adulthood – a transitional stage we call adolescence. Of all the changes adolescence brings, accepting new rules is perhaps the hardest.

To comprehend the functioning of the Superego, in addition to psychoanalysis (for which I draw on Freud, Dolto, Zimerman, and Roudinesco in this article), studying neurology becomes essential, particularly regarding gray matter (where the Ego and Superego functions reside). When discussing the adolescent brain, we must consider its plasticity – a brain whose gray matter is in a state of constant flux. This mutability creates conflicts in the development of the Superego.

But what is the Superego? According to Zimerman (2009), besides teaching us about limits, the Superego generates guilt, along with its associated anxieties and fears, by internalizing “bad objects”.

Zimerman (2009, p. 84) states that:

In clinical practice with adolescents, the most frequent complaints from parents and educators are that adolescents do not obey the rules, refuse to complete tasks, do not want to study, do not make their beds, only seek pleasure, and often “break the rules.” If the Superego is a regulator of what can and cannot be done, it is difficult for the adolescent brain (specifically the prefrontal cortex) to establish new rules when some have yet to be fully formed — such as whether they are “old enough” to do certain things or if they should stop doing things they used to as children. What defines the age at which adolescence begins and childhood ends?

According to the neuroscientist Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, the number of synapses (the points of contact between neurons) in the prefrontal cortex is greater at the onset of adolescence but drastically decreases in the following years (Blakemore, 2012). Using MRI scans, she observed a reduction in gray matter. Blakemore (2011, p. 4) explains: “For instance, the brain regions associated with emotions are more developed during adolescence than the prefrontal cortex, which is far from mature. Therefore, adolescents do not yet have a fully functional prefrontal cortex”.

It becomes clear that “brain regions involved in interpreting information and making decisions are still developing” (Blakemore, 2011, p. 4). As such, adolescents are not yet prepared to make “certain rational decisions” like adults. Blakemore also emphasizes that there is no precise age when the brain becomes fully mature. Thus, when caring for adolescents, whether at home, school, or in therapy, we must remember that they are in transition and constantly changing. We can no longer treat them as children, but neither can we expect them to take on adult responsibilities. This difficulty in defining the period of adolescence has long been acknowledged.

In psychoanalysis, we see important work by Dolto (1990), who published a book entitled The Cause of Adolescents, as well as Winnicott’s studies and later contemporary psychoanalysts like Calligaris and Delaroche. However, they all recognize this phase as one of flexible and constant transformation.

We can say that the adolescent’s prefrontal cortex is like soft clay, still moldable and not yet hardened. Any movement, any element integrated into this mass will transform it. These elements include hormones, bodily changes, external factors (social and cultural), and emotions. According to studies by Edify Education (2023, para. 7), it is stated that: “(…) The adolescent brain contains lower levels of serotonin and dopamine, neurotransmitters that provide a sense of pleasure and well-being. This can increase aggression, along with higher testosterone levels, contributing to outbursts of anger and impulsive behavior”.

In summary, since this area is responsible for “a wide range of cognitive functions” (Blakemore, 2012, 2:7) and is in constant flux, with both gains and significant losses, we can conclude that adolescents lack full control over the Superego. Blakemore (2012, 1:49) points out that:

This lack of control over the Superego is also what causes difficulty in social interaction. “Understanding others” is what we call interaction or bonding in psychoanalysis (Blakemore, 2012). The difficulty in this understanding represents a “failure in bonding.” For adolescents to accept themselves (self-awareness) and others, within the framework of norms, rules, and desires, limits must be established. When we see that this brain has not matured yet, we realize it is not capable of identifying itself in the “mirror”. This is an important point, leading to one of the clinical approaches I developed throughout my research (as outlined in my 2023 book – Capelatto, 2024): analyzing adolescents in the therapeutic setting must be handled with the understanding that they are beings in constant “mutation” — therefore, nothing is fixed.

Adolescents don’t have a defined image or an established personality; “they are in a phase of experimentation and discovery”. Thus, demanding from them an identity – and expecting that they have established desires, in relation to their identification and future – and requiring them to follow adult rules and norms denies this brain’s plasticity, this brain whose gray matter is changing daily. Therefore, communicating with them involves understanding that they will be a different person in each session and helping them to recognize what they identify with and what they do not as they go through each change, as well as helping them face the daily mourning of their losses (from childhood) and prepare for the future demands of adulthood. But allowing them to go through adolescence in a healthy way, developing their Ego, and being able to see themselves and create their moral and ethical framework, as Freud presented in 1932 (in “New Introductory Lectures on Psychoanalysis”, as cited in De Menezes and Stefaniszen, 2020, p. 54):

Shall we talk about the Ego? The function responsible for memory, emotions, and perception? The one that allows a person to become aware of their own identity? In the brain, there’s an area we can associate with the Ego, known as the Limbic System – a structure located beneath the prefrontal cortex responsible for emotional responses. The term was introduced in 1878 by anatomist and physician Paul Broca, who described the Ego as the “limbo,” the boundary between different parts of the brain – between critical judgment and instinctual drives (the Id, the psychic function of impulses). Lima (2010, p. 284) explains that: “The Id is the psychic instance ‘primarily oriented toward the most primitive life processes, such as survival (drinking and eating), defending life or territory (attack and aggression), propagating life (reproduction), and obtaining pleasure”.

As Zimerman (2009, p. 83) states, “the Ego is what enables adaptation to the reality of the external world”. It’s the psychic apparatus that manages self-esteem, the self-image, and how the subject integrates this image with the world. According to Zimerman (2009, p. 83):

Since the adolescent brain is undergoing transformation, with the gray matter showing plasticity, we also see a “dysfunction” in the Ego, as the gray matter responsible for this function – namely, the Limbic System – is also affected. Within this system, “there is a nucleus responsible for the “pleasure center,” known as the Nucleus Accumbens” (Schwienbacher et al., 2004, p. 87). This nucleus acts as a “limbic-motor interface and plays a central role in the brain’s reward circuits” (Neto, 2015, p. 11). Interestingly, the Nucleus Accumbens is located right at the border (“limbo”) between the Prefrontal Cortex and the Temporal Lobe which can be interpreted as the interaction zone between the Ego and the Superego. Additionally, the Amygdala, situated in the more emotionally intense area of the Temporal Lobe, plays a key role in processing emotions (Figure 1).

There are two key factors in the malleability of the limbic system, governed by the Nucleus Accumbens: one concerns risk-taking, which creates a sense of excitement, making pleasure not merely a consequence of desire but a function of “danger” – not danger as a threat, but as satisfaction. The second factor is that by defying norms and rules, adolescents experience an identity conflict (they want to be different, but paradoxically, this difference often leads to low self-esteem when it results in exclusion from the group). As Neto (2015, p. 11) adds:

I highlight this discussion about the Ego to illustrate how fragile the capacity of adolescents is to establish a sense of identity (self-recognition) and belonging (to the family, school, or social group). When it comes to risk-taking, the risks are not necessarily about acceptance or rejection but are instead driven by pleasure. Thus, as adults often say, adolescents just want to have fun and think it is cool to break the rules to avoid frustration, limits, and unpleasant experiences. The one who “controls” the Ego is the Superego. But, as we have seen, the Superego is still undergoing transformation during adolescence, with both gains and losses.

According to Roudinesco (1998, p. 744), the superego “acts as a judge and censor in relation to the ego”. Imagine a computer with an overloaded memory, all programs running simultaneously, yet lacking an ideal processor to handle all that data. That is the adolescent brain: a brain that thinks a lot, bombarded by countless pieces of information, orders, and functions, but lacking the maturity to process, interpret, and absorb all those thoughts.

In the article “Study Maps Brain Evolution Throughout Life” (Zorzetto, 2022, para. 5), a graph (Figure 2) illustrates the development of gray and white matter across human life stages. In adolescence, there is a reduction in gray matter, which decreases the capacity of the prefrontal cortex – and, therefore, of the superego. This reduction results in decreased control over the ego, as noted by Roudinesco (1998). Concurrently, there is a significant increase in white matter, composed of axons that transmit electrical signals in the brain.

During adolescence, as the cognitive and critical judgment capacities decrease (along with the ability to comprehend emotions, thoughts, and execute tasks), there’s a high level of brain activity for absorbing information and engaging in various mental tasks. In other words, the adolescent brain processes a lot at once but takes time to respond and understand.

If the superego’s function is to provide “critical judgment” to the ego, and this function is diminished in adolescents’ brains, how can we help them develop these faculties? Based on the clinical cases I observed and documented in my book (Capelatto, 2024), the most crucial strategy for managing this is to help adolescents deal with frustrations.

Let’s think of this brain that resists the limits imposed by the external world — by adults, parents, and schools. Adolescents do not accept these limits because they do not fully understand them. They perceive these limits as attacks on their established childhood life. Much of what they could do before, they no longer can, and the anxiety that leads to frustration stems from the fear of loss and the need to assume greater independence. Many tasks that were previously handled by parents or teachers must now be done alone. This fear hinders adolescents from fully engaging their reflective and critical judgment functions.

There’s another brain area, the amygdala, located in the temporal lobe, responsible for emotional regulation and memory modulation. The amygdala is part of the limbic system and can be thought of as its processor. It plays a central role in processing fear. In the adolescent brain, the amygdala often “replaces” the prefrontal cortex when it comes to decision-making, solving problems, and adhering to rules and norms. As noted by Edify Education (2023, para. 4), “It’s worth remembering that the amygdala is associated with emotions, impulses, aggression, and instinctual behavior”. This is why adolescents often respond more impulsively (where the Id assumes control) to stimuli, leading to manifestations like anger. As psychoanalyst Capelatto (2010, para. 2) points out, “anger is the child of fear, and fear is the engine of life. We cannot live without it — unless we become ill”.

Now, if we combine all these elements — excessive activity, a reduction in prefrontal cortex function (with the amygdala stepping in), hormonal overdrive, and external pressures — what do we get? It has become common to refer to this as a “storm” in the adolescent brain. According to Blakemore (2011), however, this term is too negative. Adolescence isn’t solely a negative experience. A better term might be fatigue — a combination of overwork and strain. But it’s not just being physically tired; it is emotional exhaustion. When a computer overloads, it either freezes or crashes. Similarly, the prefrontal cortex’s inability to regulate puts the amygdala into overdrive, leading to emotional disarray.

To illustrate this study on the Prefrontal Cortex, Limbic System, and Amygdala, and their relationship with adolescents’ psycho-emotional functions, I developed a table (Table 1). The study presented in this article demonstrates that the relationship between Id, Ego, and Superego, which shapes the self, or I, in adolescents, leads to impulsive behaviors, identity conflicts, and difficulties in managing frustrations.

Since the adolescent brain is undergoing a lengthy maturation process – characterized by new physical and psychic structures, as well as marked losses – we can conclude that adolescence is a phase of intense emotional activity, which results in fatigue. This fatigue, intrinsic to being an adolescent, becomes a defining feature of this life stage.

How can we address this fatigue in clinical settings? A collaborative approach involving endocrinologists and therapists (to treat both physical and social fatigue) is essential. However, it is not enough to think of combating fatigue merely through dietary control or medications that boost energy, alongside suggestions for activities that improve concentration and physical well-being. We must also consider that this fatigue is connected to the brain’s plasticity — an increase in electrical impulses combined with a reduction in gray matter.

Returning to clinical management, I argue that it’s crucial to help adolescents navigate this constant brain “switching” and their interactions with others (family, school, social groups) that place demands on them. Helping adolescents discern between what is reasonable and what is excessive in these demands is vital. They will need to start doing certain things on their own and stop doing others — thus, they must learn to cope with grief, frustrations, and the acceptance of change.

Additionally, when discussing the Prefrontal Cortex, Limbic System, and Amygdala, we are also addressing a critical aspect of language formation, as suggested by the brain schema I present next (Figure 3). Given the brain’s plasticity, we can infer that an adolescent’s language is “mutant”, reflecting their ongoing transformation. Therefore, understanding, studying, and supporting adolescents involves working with the way they express themselves, be it through language or gestures.

Given the continuous changes – physical, emotional, and relational – we can conclude from this study that the most significant observation, from both neurological and psychoanalytic perspectives, is the inhibitory dysregulation of the Prefrontal Cortex. In other words, adolescence is the phase during which the Superego is in conflict. What was once solidified during childhood – the understanding, respect, and acceptance of limits, laws, norms, others, and the world – seems to diminish (alongside the reduction of gray matter) and takes time to re-establish. Adolescence is a hiatus for the Superego. This is because everything previously considered as established rules and limits in the real world – family, school, social relationships – has changed. Now the rules, relationships, preferences, and desires are different. This loss of control, this fatigue, can be understood as adolescent symptoms stemming from causes such as doubt, uncertainty, and the challenge of dealing with losses and new expectations. Ultimately, adolescence can be seen as a period marked by a “pathology” of the Superego.